1.3 Contributors of the Effective Teacher

---

  1.3.2 Teachers' Level of Subject Matter

---

Your knowledge of the subject or subjects that you want your students to learn should be extensive. That is why teachers specialize in a particular subject matter and grade level. The better you “know your staff,” the more potential you have for making it understood and even enjoyed by others.
For example, a teacher who really understands the structure of mathematics has a better chance of sequencing mathematical lessons in a manner that seems sensible to students. Another sign of a good teacher is that students come to enjoy or even love a subject, and this is only possible if the teacher has enough knowledge to teach the subject enthusiastically.

Subject matter knowledge should be considered with their contexts. Contexts consist of the kinds of learners, class/classroom size, material and equipment available, and time available.

Kinds of Learner Class/classroom size Material and equipment available Time available

Kinds of Learner
Student variability is a fact of life in all schools and classrooms. That diversity – whether economic (income and education level of parents), cultural (ethnicity, coming from rural or urban areas), gender related (male or female), developmental (personality, physical appearances) or other - has to be recognized and taken into account.

To novice teachers, the class seems to have a single face rather than many faces. However, as you study child development and gain teaching experience, you are more likely to see, accept, and provide for differences among learners. At that point, individual learners will clearly have an impact on your instructional planning and on how you will teach.

Class/Classroom size
Class size, to some extend, dictates how you will teach. In such a crowded, complex environment it is more likely that you will choose to teach the class as a whole and that you will use direct or expository teaching. Conversely, having fewer learners and teaching in a less complex environment permit more teacher-student interaction. Smaller classes, therefore, are more likely than larger ones to be characterized by individual and small-group instruction.

The physical size of a classroom will also have an impact on your teaching. The availability of a space in a larger room permits you more instructional options than does a crowded environment. A larger room also provides you and your students with greater individual or private space.

Availability of Material and Equipment
Teachers are limited to provide effective and efficient instruction when there are insufficient resources.

Multiple textbooks, Reference materials Computer labs Laboratory Television

Time available
There are limits to the amount of instructional time available to teachers. Therefore, time has a real impact on how you will teach.

• If you seem to have more time, you can employ more indirect learning strategies such as experimentation and discussion.
  
• When time is short, you may have to be more direct, telling learners what they need to know through lecture, since that is a reasonably efficient way of presenting large amounts of information in a short amount of time.

  1.3.2.1 Teachers' First Level of Subject Matter

---

  Lesson Clarity

Most important things for the clarity of the lesson is writing of the objectives. There are three different kinds of learning outcomes: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. Here is an example of each.
Students can recite that 6 sevens are 42 (6x7=42). This is a cognitive objective that mostly requires the use of mental processes.
Students can hold a paint brush correctly so they can create a brushstroke. This is a psychmotor objective that mostly requires physical dexterity.
Students enjoy orchestral music. This objective requires the learner to “feel” something. It is an affective objective. The nature of your objectives will also influence the way you teach. Can you see that each kind of objective probably requires you to teach somewhat differently?

An effective teacher informs learners of the lesson objective (e.g., describes what behaviors will be tested or required on future assignments as a result of the lesson).

Prepare a behavioral objective for the lesson at the desired level of complexity (e.g., knowledge, comprehension, etc.). Indicate to the learners at the start of the lesson in what ways the behavior will be used in the future.

An effective teacher provides learners with an advance organizer (e.g., places lesson in perspective of past and/or future lessons).

Consult or prepare a unit plan to determine what task-relevant prior learning is required for this lesson and what task-relevant prior learning this lesson represents for future lessons. Begin the lesson by informing the learner that the content to be taught is part of this larger context.

An effective teacher checks for task relevant prior learning at the beginning of the lesson (e.g., determines level of understanding of prerequisite facts or concepts and reteaches, if necessary).

Ask questions to the students at the beginning of a lesson or check assignments regularly to determine if task-relevant prior knowledge has been acquired.

An effective teacher gives directives slowly and distinctly (e.g., repeats directives when needed or divides them into smaller pieces).

Organize procedures for lengthy assignments in step-by-step order and give as handout as well as orally.

An effective teacher knows ability levels and teaches at or slightly above learners’ current level of functioning (e.g., knows learners’ attention spans).

Determine ability level from standardized tests, previous assignments, and interest and retarget instruction accordingly.

An effective teacher uses examples, illustrations, and demonstrations to explain and clarify (e.g., uses visual to help interpret and reinforce main points).

Restate main points in at least one modality other than the one in which they were initially taught (e.g., visual vs. auditory).

An effective teacher provides review or summary at end of each lesson.

Use key abstractions, repetition, or symbols to help students efficiently store and later recall content.

Instructional Variety

During different periods of history, different ways of teaching have been championed. Such preferences can be the result of naturally occuring events.

Time	Prevalent Views of Good Teaching
1950-early 1960	When the former U.S.S.R. launched the first spacecraft, the world in general and the United States in particular saw the need to increase students understanding in mathematics and science. “New math and science” programs emerged. These programs, emphasizing problem solving and discovery, replaced older ones which emphasized rote learning and memorization
1960-1970	This preference for problem solving and discovery or inquiry teaching was pushed aside somewhat by a new national imperative to improve race relation, in particular, and human relations in general. To accomplish this schools were and still are asked to promote and celebrate diversity: cultural, gender, and learning and developmental differences.
1970-1980	Increased international economic and political tensions have made the nation look for ways that schools can help us become more productive and efficient. To make schools more accountable and students more competent, educators needed to be very clear about their goals and about what their students should know and be able to do.Relatedly, teachers were expected to utilize learning incentives or rewards tied to the accomplishment of precise achievement. Such goal-directed learning rekindled educators’ interest in behavioral learning theory.
1980-	Known as cognitive learning theory, it is built around peoples natural instinct to explore their environment using their prior knowledge as a guide. Rise of the “new cognition” increased emphasis on the self and learner perceptions and control of learning. Cognitive developmenral theory, social cognitive theory and attribution theory was sourced from this approach.

An effective teacher uses attention gaining devices (e.g., begins with a challenging question, visualizing the content, or example).

Begin lesson with an activity in a modality that is different from last lesson or activity (e.g., change from listening to seeing).

An effective teacher shows enthusiasm and animation through variation in eye contact, voice, and gestures (e.g., changes pitch and volume, moves about during transitions to the new activity).

Change position at regular intervals (e.g., every 10 minutes). Change speed or volume to indicate that a change in content or activity has occurred.

An effective teacher varies mode of presentation, (e.g., lectures, asks questions, then provides for independent practice [daily]).

Preestablish an order of daily activities that rotates cycles of seeing, listening and doing.

An effective teacher uses a mix of rewards and reinforcers (e.g., extra credit,verbal praise, independent study, etc. [weekly, monthly]).

Establish lists of rewards and expressions of verbal praise and choose among them randomly. Provide reasons for praise along with the expression of praise.

An effective teacher incorporates student ideas or participation in some aspects of the instruction (e.g., uses indirect instruction or divergent questioning [weekly monthly]).

Occasionally plan instruction in which student opinions are used to begin the lesson (e.g."What would you do if.. ").

An effective teacher varies types of questions (e.g., divergent, convergent [weekly] and probes (e.g., to clarify, to solicit, to redirect [daily]).

Match questions to the behavior and complexity of the lesson objective. Vary complexity of lesson objectives in accord with the unit plan.